Islamization of the Philippines Essay

Contrary to the methods of Spanish conquistadors who handled colonization at swordpoint, the introduction of Islam to pre-colonial Philippines and to the rest of Southeast Asia was generally achieved with minimal bloodshed. By marrying into the rich and ruling class, Muslim traders, teachers and missionaries facilitated the spread of Islam as they travelled to Java, Sumatra, Jahore, Malacca, Borneo and other nearby islands to conduct their mission. By the 13th century, most of the lands of Southeast Asia were Islamized, and pretty soon the southern part of the Philippines followed this trend during the 14th century. But of course, this phenomenon could have not been possible without notable Muslim people who spearheaded the spread of Islam. Based on the tarsila or the genealogies, the first one who introduced Islam in the country was Tuan Mashaika, the supposed son of Jamiyun Kalisa and his wife, Indira Suga, who were both sent to Sulu by Alexander the Great (Mongcal). Tuan Masaika married the daughter of Raja Sipad of Patikol in Buansa, present-day Jolo (Scribd.com). He was followed by Karim-ul Makhdum, or simply Mukdum, a noted Arabian scholar who introduced Islam in Malacca in the middle of 14th century and continued his travel to the east. He then reached Simunol, Sulu after passing through Sambuwangan (Zamboanga) and Basilan in 1380 (Mongcal). He built the first mosque in Sulu, and he continued to preach Islam until the time of his death. Around 1390, Raja Baginda, a minor prince from Menangkabaw, Sumatra arrived with soldiers and conquered Sulu. Afterwards, in 1450, they were followed by a Jahore[->0]-born Arab explorer[->1] and religious scholar[->2] named Sayyid Abu Bakr Abirin, or simply Abu Bakr (Sultanate of Sulu- Wikipedia). Upon coming to Sulu, Abu Bakr married Paramisuli, the local dayang-dayang or princess, and daughter of his predecessor, Raja Baginda. Then, he founded the first-ever sultanate of Sulu with him as the sultan, and thus he assumed the title Paduka Mahasari Maulana al Sultan Sharif ul-HÄ shim. But it was Shariff Muhammad Kabungsuwan Ibrahim, son of a royal-blooded Arab from Hadramaut (Scribd.com), who stretched the borders of Islamization beyond Sulu, and into the entirety of Mindanao. In 1475 he and his soldiers invaded the natives of present-day Cotabato and married the princess Putri Tonina. He then founded the sultanate of Mindanao with him as the head. It wasn’t just the natives in Mindanao who had been affected by the spread of Islam. Malay traders from Borneo facilitated the spread of Islam to some of the provinces of Luzon, namely Batangas, Mindoro and Pampanga. By the time the Spaniards arrived during the 16th century, they were surprised to discover that natives from certain parts of Luzon, including pre-colonial Manila and Tondo, practiced Islam. It is common knowledge, however, that technically and generally, the Spaniards had been more successful in propagating their religion all throughout the Philippines, thus confining and paralyzing the spread and influence of Islam. Today, the Philippines is one of the most predominant Roman Catholic nations in the world, second to East Timor in Southeast Asia. Only about 5% of today’s Philippine population practices Islam. The Roots of Education in the Philippines It is common for Filipinos to place a high regard on education not only as a predestined obligation to their children, but also as an important means to a higher social and economical status. According to the National Statistics Office or NSO, as of May 2012, 58 million out of the estimated 67 million Filipinos aged 10 to 64 years old are functionally literate, meaning they can read, write, compute, and comprehend (Mercene). Most Filipinos who are functionally literate are those whose who have at least finished high school. In pre-colonial Philippines, however, education in hunting-gathering communities or Primitive Communal societies was â€Å"informal, unstructured, and devoid of methods† (DepEd). It is less focused on academics characterized by the 3Rs which are reading, writing and arithmetic, and more compliant to vocational activities. The learners were taught by their parents or in the houses of tribal educators such as the babaylan or the katalonan, who are believed to possess wisdom and knowledge on spirituality with respect to their beliefs and traditions (Sribd). An ancient Southeast Asian writing system, called the Baybayin, was used as a teaching medium. Baybayin, from the Tagalog term baybay which means â€Å"to spell† is a member of the Brahmic family[->3] and is recorded as being in use in the 16th century, up until the late 19th century (Baybayin – Wikipedia). It is not to be confused with Alibata, which is Arabic in origin. Ancient writing tools consist of leaves, palm fronds, tree bark, fruit rinds, daggers as panulat and materials made from bamboo. Upon the arrival of the Spaniards, these native communities are already practically and technically literate using the Baybayin. There had been several major changes to the type of education in the Philippines during the Spanish period, as their teachings were centralized on the ideology of Catholicism. The tribal tutors were replaced with Spanish missionaries, and the responsibility for providing primary education to indigenous populations was left to religious orders, headed by parish friars. The concepts of church and school were merged. This elitist, religious-oriented and exceedingly patriarchal type of education continued until it was partially liberalized through the enactment of the Educational Decree of 1863 which provided for the establishment of at least one primary school for boys and girls in each town under the responsibility of the municipal government (DepEd). The first book printed in the Philippines, a version of Doctrina Christiana or Christian Doctrine in the Chinese language, was printed in 1590, to be followed by versions in Tagalog and Spanish in 1593. There were four major groups of Spanish missionaries who established Christian schools in the Philippines, most of these institutions still teaching at present. The Augustinians established a school in Cebu in 1565, and then the Franciscans took charge of educating the natives in 1577. The Jesuits followed in 1581, with the youth as their focus. They also founded the Unibersidad de San Ignacio, which was later incorporated into the University of Santo Tomas, and also the Colegio de San Josà © in 1601 that took over the management in what became Escuela Municipal, now Ateneo de Manila University (Education in the Philippines- Wikipedia). The last group of missionaries were the Dominicans, who established a school on their first mission in Bataan in 1587, and later founded Colegio de San Juan de Letran in 1620. In general, however, education during the Spanish period was â€Å"inadequate, suppressed, and controlled† (DepEd). A free and adequate secularized public school system only came with the first decade of the American rule, with respect to recommendations of the Schurman Commission, or the First Philippine Commission – a five-person group headed by Dr. Jacob Schurman[->4], president of Cornell University[->5], to investigate conditions in the islands and make recommendations (Schurman Commission – Wikipedia). The Taft Commission or the Second Philippine Commission established by President William Mckinley came later in 1900. This commission, headed by William Howard Taft[->6], was granted legislative as well as limited executive powers (Taft Commission – Wikipedia), and thus it focused on training the people for the duties of citizenship and avocation. The spread of public schools throughout the Philippines came afterwards in 1901, when the Thomasites, the five hundred pioneer teachers sent by the U.S. government to the Philippines due to shortage of teachers, arrived and estab lished barangay schools. Works Cited List Mongcal, MAJ SAMUEL T . â€Å"Sulu: Our Ancestral Domain.† The Philippine Marine Corps’ Official Web Site. N.p., n.d. Web. 17 Oct. 2012. . â€Å"Sultanate of Sulu – Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.† Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. N.p., n.d. Web. 17 Oct. 2012. . â€Å"The Spread of Islam in the Philippines.† Scribd. N.p., n.d. Web. 17 Oct. 2012. . REPORT IN HUM 10 Javier, Jess G. Hum10 – B1 [->0] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johore [->1] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_people [->2] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_scholar [->3] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahmic_family [->4] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_Gould_Schurman [->5] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornell_University [->6] – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Howard_Taft

Jing-Mei Character Analysis

Amy Tan’s short story â€Å"Two Kinds† illustrates a young girls struggle with her highly opinionated mother and finding her own way. Jing-Mei’s mother continually enforces Jing-Met to carry out tasks the way she wants her to, her way. Therefore Jing-Mei is unable to grow as her own person and carry out the choices she wants to. Throughout Jing-Mei’s journey she begins to develop negative thoughts of herself and displays the attributes of insecurity, stubbornness and cruelty.Jing-Mei’s stubbornness encourages her to believe her mother is being unfair and cruel, â€Å"when [her] mother had told [her] this, [she] felt as though [she’s] been sent to hell. † When in reality, all her mother is doing is guiding her so she won’t have to go through the hardships she herself had gone through (Page 5). Jing-Mei has no desire to cooperate with her mother. She fights with her every way she can, determined to extinguish her mother’s d reams of her becoming successful, Jing-Mei neglects her studies as well as the piano.Jing-Mei believes her mother is trying to change her, Jing-Mei states â€Å"I won’t let her change me†¦ I won’t be what I’m not†¦Ã¢â‚¬  despite her mother’s real intentions of her becoming successful (Page 3). Jing-Mei feels she must reject her mother in order to find herself â€Å"right then and there, [she] was determined to put a stop to her foolish pride. † however, in doing so, she is rejecting her heritage and identity (Page 7).Suyuan Woo’s constant criticism hands Jing-Mei the idea of lack of affection, which results in Jing-Mei’s insecurity. Suyuan’s values of family obedience, concealment of unnecessary emotions, and criticism as expressions of love contrast with Jing-Mei’s American ideas of independence, self-esteem and open expressions of love guide Jing-Mei’s belief of never fulfilling her mother’s e xpectations. Therefore, Jing-Mei constantly puts herself down â€Å"[she] looked in the mirror†¦ [she] began to cry, such a sad ugly girl! due to misunderstanding her mother’s intentions (Page 3). Her mother’s high expectations and criticism are her way of expressing love and faith in her daughter. Jing-Mei misunderstands her mother’s actions which lead her to the conclusion that she will â€Å"never be the kind of daughter [her mother] wants her to be† and leads her to the question of â€Å"why don’t you like me the way I am? I am not a genius! † (Page 10,5).

Marketing Plan - 2689 Words

Mark D. Imhoff MM522 (Marketing Management) Marketing Plan Suspension Beds Sunday, September 18, 2011 ------------------------------------------------- Executive Summary Suspension beds is a revolutionary product of which is very attractive to expanding families, kids, students, and trend-setters. The product utilizes wasted overhead space in bedrooms for the purpose of freeing up the entire square footage of the room to use as one so desires. The product and company has little direct completion, the benefits are immeasurable and the growth potential for the company is enormous. The product leverages cost savings when it comes to customers needing more space, and conversational topics for those who have no space or financial†¦show more content†¦There will be segmentation of the target market using home pricing, not home sizes, as home price will be adequate in this area. The primary targets will be as follows: Lower to Middle Income, Expanding Families; Within this demographic â€Å"space† requirements are continually challenged by the availability of funds to acquire it, particularly when speaking of home renovations and expansions. This will be the largest of the three identified Target Markets, consisting of approximately 1/2 of the overall TM. Geographically, this target market is located throughout the valley, in the middle-income neighborhoods which is approximately $30k to $62.5k household income (US Census Bureau, 2006 – Appendix A). The slogan â€Å"the cheapest way to add a room to your home† will be a key marketing tool for this particular segment of the target market. With the economic conditions and growing families, space is desired but not always an option due to cost so this will be a key focal point. This particular market makes up 52% of the total available market, more than 128,000 homes. (U.S. Census Summary File 3, Profile of Selected Housing Characteristics: 2000) Higher Income Market; In this demographic the strategy will focus more on the â€Å"wow factor† than space savings or financial viability. The company will also utilize standard ads, flyers, mailers, etc. The geographical areas of this demographic will beShow MoreRelatedA Marketing Plan For A New Marketing Strategy966 Words   |  4 Pagesthe governmental legal requirements and, on the other hand, defines the organization’s policy administration. For a triumphant marketing plan, understanding the government legal approaches allows for efficient operation and inter-relationship with other organization. Similarly, internal legal policies allow the company to uphold its operation in a set manner. 4.0: Marketing Audit A market audit process is a tool that can never be neglected despite the situation. However, very few companies carryRead MoreMarketing Plan For A Small Business2998 Words   |  12 Pagesin detail. †¢ The benefits of TQM when implementing the strategic plan to meet goals or increasing profit within a small business. †¢ The economy’s motivation of small businesses stability as compared to large businesses that are well established, also the financial assistance of other organization including the government. †¢ Different categories of a company and the importance of CRM to any size business. †¢ To compare the marketing plan of a small business and a large business where it reflects theRead MoreMarketing Plan827 Words   |  4 Pagesï » ¿Marketing Business Environment Marketing Planning: An Overview of Marketing 6 main questions to ask in order to create your marketing plan: 1. Where are we now? (Business Mission, Marketing audit, SWOT analysis) 2. How did we get here? (Business Mission, Marketing audit, SWOT analysis) 3. Where are we heading? 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They are essentiallyRead MoreMarketing Plan For Subway Marketing1516 Words   |  7 PagesExecutive summary The marketing plan has close ties with the overall financial and business plan. This plan contents a strategy for success, and breaks it down into coherent, actionable components that will aid The Sub Shop to implement marketing activities to provide a firm return on investment. The following areas will help explain how the company plans to differentiate the business and product offering from the competition, and define the strategy that will drive its business forward. The aimRead MoreMarketing Plan1891 Words   |  8 Pagesa breakeven point in the second year after opening the store and become profitable in the third year of being in this business. In the first year, our profits will be low, due to low sales and high distribution, inventory, marketing and advertising and sales expenses. Marketing expenses will be very high in the first year. We have to inform the customers about this new product and get the consumers to try out this new concept. It will take â€Å"Just passin’ Thru† some time to build up the customer base

Finding Good Ww2 Essay Topics

Finding Good Ww2 Essay Topics In case the latter is true, the topic should be chosen dependent on its depth and controversial nature. Finding the most suitable arguments will allow you to prove your point and win. From time to time, it is an excellent notion to resort to special essay topic generators which are available online. When you are requested to choose a great topic for your argument, start with something you're acquainted with. Moreover, there you may also find efficient advice and a few tips on the best way to write the job. Choosing topic is a rather important decision you must make regarding anything involving research. Deciding upon an emotional topic is also a superb idea. You must be attentive whilst deciding upon the topic that is most suitable for your line of inquiry. Up in Arms About Good Ww2 Essay Topics? Planning is critical in any sort of home task, from building a powerpoint presentation to supplying American Government homework help to your friend. Writing a great task isn't difficult if you follow the correct measures. Making a list of the benefits and disadvantages is the ideal beginning to writing an advantages and disadvantages essay about inflation. Documentary film business program. This psychological element to art can be readily overlooked. It is possible to also order a fully written compare and contrast essay and alleviate the quantity of work you need to do. I'm a banan a tree essay. This paragraph is quite important because it leaves the reader having the most immediate impression. It is possible to never finish a fantastic academic assignment in case you don't enjoy the subject you're writing about. Bear in mind your prof may, naturally, have various ideas regarding what sort of assignment you ought to be writing. It's possible for you to restate your thesis statement and point out a number of the arguments used over the whole essay that backs it up. This time you've got to compose a World War II essay. The third source of world war II was the growth of Fascism. The last cause of world war II was an immediate result from all the prior causes, and that's the rearmament of all of the European powers. Irrespective of which war you're likely to write about, whether it's the Civil War, WWI, WW2, Vietnam or Iraq War, you need to first decide on your topic and opt for a process of approach to utilize in writing the war essay. Having selected a very good topi c to argue about, at this point you need to make an argumentative essay outline. You can begin with the kind of topic you pick for your compare and contrast essay. This informative article puts more focus on subjects and topic for these kinds of essays since without a great subject, you could wind up getting stuck and need to start over and over again. The majority of this guide is devoted to listing history topics that are excellent for essays, but first, it's important to get a very simple process for using a list of potential essay topics such as this. The criteria that determine a great topic aren't numerous. When prior brainstorming is finished, you might begin drafting your essay. I've included an extensive collection of topic ideas with suggestions on the way you might develop this issue into a certain sort of paper, like an argument, compare and contrast, or pros and cons essay. Lucky for you, there are several topics you could concentrate on when writing and it's all your responsibility to figure out the precise topic that you would like to build on. With this kind of a wide subject, students find it difficult to narrow down their research to a specific topic. The very first and among the most important step to begin your essay is to select a topic. It's time to have a peek at the 100 interesting persuasive essay topics shared by the very best writers from various sections of the world! This is the reason you will need to take a little time and take a look at other written essays in exactly the same category as the one which you are writing for the very best ways to begin, develop your argument and finally conclude.

The Accounting And Auditing Industry - 916 Words

Before SOX was established, the public trusted and depend the auditors wholly for the publicly-traded companies to accurately complete audits of the companies’ financial statements which they relied upon in making investment decisions. The accounting and auditing industry was self-regulated (Cunningham Harris, 2006). Company managers had little accountability when accounting and auditing problems arose. Everything was changed after there were many high-profile cases of accounting fraud, particularly the scandals of Enron and WorldCom in the early 2000s. Each of these frauds caused massive losses to investors of the companies and the public lost confidence in securities of US market. Following these series of failures, SOX was enacted to restore investor’s confidence which was rattled and to prevent accounting frauds in the future with improved corporate governance and accountability which all public companies must comply. SOX was named after Senator Paul Sarbanes and R epresentative Michael G. Oxley, who were the main drafters of the Act. It was approved by the House of Representatives and signed into law by the President George W. Bush on July 30, 2003. Lack of ethics and integrity seem to be the key factors that caused accounting fraud. SOX revised the framework for the public accounting and auditing profession, provides guidance for better corporate governance and create regulations to define how public companies are to comply with the law. Although many have questionedShow MoreRelatedImportance of External Auditors1110 Words   |  5 Pagesobjective opinion on the organization’s financial statement and effectiveness of the accounting polices in order to help management to make decisions. If the independence of the external auditors is impaired, the public will doubt the quality of professional auditing services, and the consequence would be very serious, just like the bankruptcy of Enron led to the disorganization of Arthur Andersen, o nce a giant accounting company in the world. In order to maintain and increase the independence of externalRead MoreAssignment of Auditing1402 Words   |  6 PagesA professional judgment is a key factor in auditing. As a result of development of auditing and accounting industry, especially after a series of accounting fraud and auditing failure cases, such as Enron and Arthur Andersen, in the last decade, professional judgments is becoming a more and more important aspect for the independent auditing industry. Recently, many countries and professional bad issued more strict auditing standards to emphasize to this point. It means the auditor should be requiredRead MoreThe New Accounting Staff Audit Practice Alert No Essay903 Words   |  4 Pagesdirections and conclusions (CRYSTAL) The effective date of the new accounting Staff Audit Practice Alert No. 12 standard for public companies reporting under U.S. generally accepted accounting principles (U.S. GAAP) is annual reporting periods beginning after December 15, 2016, including interim periods within that reporting period. The effective date of the new accounting standard for companies reporting under International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) isRead MoreAuditors in the Business World1642 Words   |  7 PagesAccounting is the process of identifying, recording, and communicating the economic events of an organization to interested users to make sound decisions. In accounting identifying economic events involves selecting the economic activities related to a particular organization such as paying out salaries to employees of a particular entity. In turn, once these economic activities have been identified they are recorded in the books daily into a systematic system measured in dollars. These econo micRead MoreEnron s Financial Fraud And Corporate Fraud1700 Words   |  7 Pagespurpose of corporate fraud and reason are different, which Enron’s financial fraud is typical event and influence accounting filed lots. Because Enron is the beginning of the series of financial frauds in American, and secondly is form growth to the bankruptcy of Enron, has attracted American media and public, the third reason is Enron’s event also lead to the world top five accounting firm Arthur Anderson collapses. Enron was one of the world biggest electricity and Gas Company, before it announcedRead MoreEssay on Analysis of the Enron/Arthur Anderson Scandal1558 Words   |  7 PagesAnderson were both giants in their own industry. Enron, a Texas based company in the energy trading business, was expanding rapidly in both domestic and global markets. Arthur Anderson, LLC. (Anderson), based out of Chicago, was well established as one of the big five accounting firms. But the means by which they achieved this status became questionable and eventually contributed to their demise. Enron used what if often referred to as â€Å"creative† accounting methods, this resulted in them postingRead MoreSharias Case621 Words   |  3 Pagesstatements auditing concepts and procedures that could be applied in determining whether an Islamic bank has been Shari’a compliant during a given financial reporting period? * Cultural differences across countries and regions of the world have complicated efforts to develop a common set of international accounting and auditing standards. * Islam accepts the fact that accounting is a social construction and itself constructs social reality but this reality which the accounting constructsRead MoreCase 4.4 Waste Management1069 Words   |  5 Pagesfraud at Waste Management. Waste Management was under pressure from other companies within the industry that could offer the same services at lower prices to customers. Dean L. Buntrock, founder, chairman, and CEO of Waste Management was the driving force behind the fraud. Buntrock set the earnings targets, fostered a culture of fraudulent accounting, and personally directed certain of the accounting changes to make the targeted earnings. Buntrock presented himself as a pillar of the community,Read MoreAuditing And The Growing Use Of Financial Software1114 Words   |  5 PagesAUDITING AND THE GROWING USE OF FINANCIAL SOFTWARE Terms of reference The report is a part of an assessment for the auditing unit; the intended audience is the lecturer Mr Ade Otukoya. The report is written after a presentation done in class to reflect on your understanding and how to improve after getting your feedback. Table of contents †¢ Introduction (what is auditing) †¢ Auditing definitions †¢ Purpose of auditing †¢ An overview of framework for audit assignment †¢ Auditing terms and definitionsRead MoreCorporate Accounting Firms Became A Tremendous Profit Generator1045 Words   |  5 PagesFrom the 1960s to 1970s, large public accounting firms expanded to become consulting services rather than traditional audit and tax services. The consulting field grew so rapidly that it became a tremendous profit generator. New hires in these consulting services usually did not have backgrounds or degrees in accounting. Firms were not requiring new hires to take six weeks of intensive accounting courses and being a CPA was no longer a preference, which was very different than it used to be. The

Definition of Plagiarism Samples for Students †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discss about the Definition and Concepts of Plagiarism. Answer: Plagiarism Plagiarism can be defined as unlawfully using the work and ideas of someone else without giving credit to them. It may involve dual, redundant and duplicate publication (Robinson, 2014).Plagiarism is an offense which carries grave academic consequences for students and scholars. The consequences of plagiarism include student expulsion, failure of the course undertaken and receiving lower scores and grades for assignments and course. Students can avoid plagiarism by quoting, paraphrasing and citing the work of someone else used in the work presented (Okoche, 2015). Quoting involves the use of the exact words of someone else and then citing the author. Paraphrasing is the academic technique of putting the words or ideas of someone else using ones wording. Citing involves giving information about the author whose work is used in such a manner that it can be tracked down. Plagiarism is a grave academic offense which can be defined as unlawfully using the work of someone else without giving them due credit. This offense can be punished by the student being expelled as well as failing the course or assignment. The student can avoid it by quoting and paraphrasing the works used in the assignment being presented. This is then followed by properly citing the author in such a manner that the works of the author can be tracked down. References Okoche, J. M. M. (2015).Plagiarism and academic dishonesty: The cancer of university education, theories and concepts. Saarbru?cken: LAP Lamber Academic Publishing. Robinson, S. R. (2014). Self-Plagiarism and Unfortunate Publication: An Essay on Academic Values. Studies in Higher Education, 39(2), 265-277.

Shweta Kataria Essays (1767 words) - Aesthetics, Arts, Literature

Shweta Kataria Mr. Jaideep Pandey British Literature: 18th Century 28 th March 2017 Literary Criticism and its emerging trends Literary criticism is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature . Literary criticism is the play of the mind on a work of literature and it consists in asking and answering rational question about literature. Such an inquiry may be directed either towards literature in general leading to a better understanding of the nature and value of literature, and a better appreciation of the pleasure proper to literature. Such an inquiry by helping us to think rightly about literature enables us to gain the fullest enjoyment from it. In this way is built up a theory of literature, and the process of literary creation is examined and made intelligible . Through the years, it has developed and grown, and ultimately provides us with parameters on how to study literature. Because there are a million different ways to dissect written works, such as novels or poems, literary criticism provides some general guidelines to help us analyze, deconstruct, interpret and evalu ate. We usually see literary criticism in a book review or critical essay. Aristotle's practical contribution to criticism, as opposed to his ethical defense of literature, lies in his inductive treatment of the elements and kinds of poetry. Poetic modes are identified according to their means of imitation, the actions they imitate, the manner of imitation, and its effects. These distinctions assist the critic in judging each mode according to its proper ends instead of regarding beauty as a fixed entity. The ends of tragedy, as Aristotle conceived them, are best served by the harmonious disposition of six elements: plot, character, diction , thought, spectacle, and song. Classical and medi eval criticism Literary criticism is thought to have existed for as long as literature. In the 4th century BC Aristotle wrote the Poetics , a typology and description of literary forms with many specific criticisms of contemporary works of art. Poetics developed for the first time the concepts of mimesis and catharsis , which are still crucial in literary studies. Plato 's attacks on poetry as imitative, secondary, and false were formative as well . Later classical medieval criticism often focused on religious texts, and the several long religious tradition of hermeneutics and textual exegesis have had a profound influence on the study of secular texts. Renaissance criticism The literary criticism of the Renaissance developed classical ideas of unity of form and content into literary neoclassicism, proclaiming literature as central to culture, entrusting the poet and the author with preservation of a long literary tradition. The birth of Renaissance criticism was in 1498, with the recovery of classical texts, most notably, Giorgio Valla's latin translation of Aristotle's Poetics. The work of Aristotle, especially Poetics, was the most important influence Renaissance critics who wrote commentaries on Aristotle's Poetics in 1570. 19 th -century criticism The British Romantic movement of the early nineteenth century introduced new aesthetic ideas to literary study, including the idea that the object of literature need not always be beautiful, noble, or perfect, but that literature itself could elevate a common subject to the level of the sublime. German Romanticism, which followed closely after the late development of German classicism, emphasized an aesthetic of fragmentation that can appear startlingly modern to the reader of English literature, and valued Witz- that is, "wit" or "humour" of a certain sort- more highly than the serious Anglophone Romanticism. The late nineteenth century brought unknown to authors known more for critical writing than for their own work. The Changing Role of Critics and Criticism Views regarding the functions of criticism and the role of critics have kept on changing through the ages. Every age has tended to assign a different function or functions to criticism. The earliest systematic critic, Plato, for example, was concerned with the problem of defining the utility of poetry in the educational system of his ideal state, found poetry wanting, and so banished poets from his ideal commonwealth. His approach was fundamentally utilitarian, and he condemned poetry as immoral and untruthful. Following Plato's condemnation, critics for long centuries to come were pre-occupied with justifying imaginative literature, more specially poetry. Critics from the